The Anthropology of Homosexual Behaviour in Cameroon and Beyond
The Anthropology of Homosexual Behaviour in Cameroon and Beyond
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Home Page > Relationships > Sexuality > The Anthropology of Homosexual Behaviour in Cameroon and Beyond
The Anthropology of Homosexual Behaviour in Cameroon and Beyond
Posted: Feb 18, 2012 |Comments: 0
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I. Introduction: Situating Homosexuality in Cameroon
The impacts of homosexuality and its implications on humans and the procreation of humankind cannot be overemphasized. In Cameroon, the practice of homosexuality is considered a repugnant activity condemned by the church, the law, different cultures and the society as a whole. Global exposure and the influx of people from other parts of the world have threatened the widespread intolerance of homosexuals and all that they stand for with many perpetuating the belief that homosexual practices or indulgence can easily become a passport to upward social mobility.
It is generally taken for granted that homosexuals wield great power in both the political and business worlds and they continuously impose this practice on many young men and women in quest of jobs and other opportunities.
A number of examples epitomize the quest of the Cameroonian society to grapple with the reality of homosexuality.
1. Following a New Year’s Eve mass by the Metropolitan Archbishop of Yaounde, His Grace Victor Tonye Bakot, strongly condemned the practice “against nature” of homosexuality which was becoming widespread in the country, a “vileness” which imperiled marriage, the family and society, pointing out that it was an “expression of the powers of evil presented today as the key to success.” “In the name of social success, in the name of admission to a great school, the way of homosexuality is being proposed to young people,” he lamented. Many Cameroonian newspapers went ahead to publish lists of “prominent” homosexuals in politics, government, business, sports and the world of music and entertainment. The trend quickly degenerated into what was termed “list Journalism”.
2. The former president of the Cameroon Chamber of Commerce, Mr. Juimo Monthe was removed because he was linked to a scandal in which a youngman was assassinated and thrown down from a top floor at the Yaounde Hilton Hotel, alleged to be the handiwork of a homosexual network the youngman was entangled with. According to The Post newspaper, “Narcisse Olivier Djomo Pokam was sodomized, scorched with a pressing iron, killed and thrown out of the 8th floor of the Yaoundé Hilton Hotel …”
3. The Cameroon government recently strongly protested against the European Union in Cameroon for allegedly funding homosexual networks in the country. In fact it had been established that the European Union had selected a Human Rights Association, which also defends the rights of homosexuals as one of the groups to benefit from its assistance.
4. A prominent Cameroonian lawyer, Barrister Alice Nkom has openly come out to defend homosexuals both in court and in media debates, saying she is the president of the Cameroonian association for the Defence of the Rights of Homosexuals.
5. There have been persistent stories of the abuse of young men by priests. Stories of homosexual activities emanate from the country’s prisons and even from dormitories in secondary schools.
All these facts go to show that the homosexual debate needs to be addressed in Cameroon just like in every other country where values are being shattered and altered on a daily basis. Demonstrating that homosexual behaviour is a social reality that is accepted and condemned in many places is therefore the objective of this write-up. I will however begin by operationalising and defining the term.
II. Definitions and Operationalisation
The term ‘homosexuality’ was coined in the late 19th century by a German psychologist, Karoly Maria Benkert.Homosexuality can be operationalised or defined in a number of ways! According to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,
‘Homosexuality is romantic or sexual attraction or behavior between members of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality refers to “an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, or romantic attractions” primarily or exclusively to people of the same sex. It also refers to an individual’s sense of personal and social identity based on those attractions, behaviors expressing them, and membership in a community of others who share them.’
Two Psychologists in their book Human Development say that “many young people have one or more homosexual experience during their growing up years usually before the age of 15. Few however go on to make this a regular pattern”. (Papalia &Olds 1989)
Allgeier and Allgeier (1995) in Sexual Interactions argue that the phrase “sexual orientation’ can be applied to erotic attraction between people of the same gender (homosexual), the other gender (heterosexual), or both genders (bisexual).
The Wikipedia further states that “the most common terms for homosexual people are lesbian for women and gay for men, though gay is also used to refer generally to homosexual men and women. The number of people who identify as gay or lesbian—and the proportion of people who have same-sex sexual experiences—are difficult for researchers to estimate reliably”.
The encyclopedia goes on to show some synonyms for homosexuals which include “menwho have sex with men” or MSM (used in the medical community when specifically discussing sexual activity) and “homoerotic” (referring to works of art). Pejorative terms in English include “queer, faggot, fairy, poof, and homo”.
III. Origins and History
The word homosexual is a Greek and Latin hybrid with the first element derived from Greek homos, ‘same’ (not related to the Latin homo, ‘man’, as in Homo sapiens), thus connoting sexual acts and affections between members of the same sex, including lesbianism.Gay generally refers to male homosexuality, but may be used in a broader sense. In the context of sexuality, lesbian refers only to female homosexuality. The word “lesbian” is derived from the name of the Greek island Lesbos, where the poet Sappho wrote largely about her emotional relationships with young women. The ancient Greeks did not have terms or concepts that correspond to the contemporary dichotomy of ‘heterosexual’ and ‘homosexual’
Papalia and Olds (1989) explore a number of hypothesis that attempt to explain the causes of homosexuality. To them the oldest is that this behaviour represents a kind of mental illness. Other theories include the possibility of a genetic factor, a hormonal imbalance, a family constellation with a dominating mother and a weak father.
A Stanford University Publication shows how a well established Sex Scholar John Boswell argues, in his fascinating Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality, that many passages taken today as condemnations of homosexuality are more concerned with prostitution, or where same-sex acts are described as “unnatural” the meaning is more akin to ‘out of the ordinary’ rather than as immoral (Boswell, 1980, ch.4; see also Boswell, 1994).
IV. Homosexuality Across Cultures
Anthropologists have documented the existence of homosexuality in many Western and non-Western societies. According to Anthony Giddens (1996) “homosexuality exists in all cultures”.
Ember and Ember (1990) in Anthropology report that the range of permissiveness or restrictiveness towards homosexual relations is as great as that of any kind of sex. They go ahead to state that “among the Lepacha of the Himalayas, a man is believed to become homosexual if he eats the flesh of an uncastrated pig”. But the Lepache say that homosexual behaviour is practically unheard of and they view it with disgust.
E. E. Evans-Pritchard recorded that male Azande warriors in the northern Congo routinely took on young male lovers between the ages of twelve and twenty, who helped with household tasks and participated in intercrural sex with their older “husbands”.
In many societies of Melanesia, especially in Papua New Guinea, same-sex relationships were an integral part of the culture until the middle of the last century. The Etoro and Marind-anim for example, even viewed heterosexuality as sinful and celebrated homosexuality instead. In many traditional Melanesian cultures a prepubertal boy would be paired with an older adolescent who would become his mentor and who would “inseminate” him (orally, anally, or topically, depending on the tribe) over a number of years in order for the younger boy to also reach puberty.
Allgeier and Allgeier (1995) in the book Sexual Interactions see the Sambia of New Guinea as an example of a culture that prescribes a period of ritualised homosexuality for young males. In these cultures,
“semen is believed to be a precious resource that must be transferred to a young male to enable him to reach maturity. Techniques for achieving this include oral intercourse, anal intercourse, and masturbation followed by a smearing of semen all over the body”.
Ember and Ember (1990) further quote the Siwans of North Africa who “expect all males to engage in homosexual relations … Fathers make arrangements for their unmarried sons to be given to an older man in a homosexual arrangement. Siwan custom limits a man to one boy”.
Another example is the Sudanese Azande who valued the warrior role so much that “prospective warrior boys aged twelve to twenty left their families and shared quarters with adult fighting men who paid bridewealth for and had sex with them” (Kottak 1991 p. 359). During this apprenticeship, the boys performed the domestic duties of women.
In the contemporary society however, the homosexual subculture is more widely accepted in both European and North American cultures. According to Anthony Giddens (1996), homosexuality as a way of life refers to individuals who have “come out” and have made associations with others of similar sexual tastes a key part of their lives. Such people usually belong to “gay subcultures in which homosexual activities are integrated into a distinct life-style”.
Nancy Bonvillain (2006) in Cultural Anthropology takes the point further when she states that “in North America today, growing numbers of lesbian and gay couples agitate to marry in ceremonies that have legal standing”. Advocates of homosexuality note that same-sex couples fulfill all of the same obligations and responsibilities towards each other, as do heterosexual couples. “They share their resources, make joint decisions, and make commitments to exclusive sexual relationships”.
V. Christian and Other Religious Perspectives
In cultures influenced by Abrahamic religions, the law and the church established sodomy as a transgression against divine law or a crime against nature. The condemnation of anal sex between males, however, predates Christian belief. It was frequent in ancient Greece; “unnatural” can be traced back to Plato
A Stanford University study indicates that “the view that procreative sex within marriage is allowed, while every other expression of sexuality is sinful, can be found, for example, in St. Augustine. This understanding leads to a concern with the gender of one’s partner that is not found in previous Greek or Roman views, and it clearly forbids homosexual acts. Soon this attitude, especially towards homosexual sex, came to be reflected in Roman Law”.
The Christian Bible reports that homosexual conduct was “a capital crime” under the Law of Moses. In Leviticus, we read:
“You shall not lie with a male as with a woman. It is an abomination.” (Lev 18:22)
More is said later in the book of Leviticus…
“If a man lies with a male as he lies with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination. They shall surely be put to death. Their blood shall be upon them.” (Lev 20:13)
The Christian teachings against homosexuality can be found in both the Old and New Testaments of the Holy Bible.
To the church of God, which was at Corinth, Paul wrote:
“Do you not know that the unrighteous will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived. Neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor homosexuals, nor sodomites, nor thieves, nor covetous, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor extortioners will inherit the kingdom of God.” (1Co 6:9-10)
In Gen 19:24-28, the destruction of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah is described. The apostle Peter explains that this unique judgment upon these two cities was to serve as an example:
“… and turning the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah into ashes, condemned them to destruction, making them an example to those who afterward would live ungodly;” (2Pe 2:6)
“And the LORD said, ‘because the outcry against Sodom and Gomorrah is great, and because their sin is very grievous,” (Gen 18:20)
The grievous sin condemned here is homosexuality as seen in Genesis 19:4-5 “…the men of the city, the men of Sodom, both old and young, all the people from every quarter, surrounded the house. And they called to Lot and said to him, ‘Where are the men who came to you tonight? Bring them out to us that we may know them carnally.’”
The Bible further reports how Lot tried to stop the men from perpetuating their homosexual intentions to no avail.
“So Lot went out to them through the doorway, shut the door behind him and said, ‘Please, my brethren, do not do so wickedly! See now, I have two daughters who have not known a man; please, let me bring them out to you, and you may do to them as you wish; only do nothing to these men, since this is the reason they have come under the shadow of my roof’”. (Gen 19:6-8)
The Christian condemnation of homosexuality is total and this explains why the Anglican Church was split when a homosexual priest was ordained Bishop in the UK. The rest of the Church in disagreement turned to the Anglican Church in Africa for leadership.
Islam and other major world religions condemn homosexuality as well. The Anthropologist Nancy Bonvillain in her book Cultural Anthropology states that attitudes about homosexuality are a further reflection of cultural learning. She reports that “Judeo-Christian-Islamic teachings convey negative messages about homosexuality, considering it to be a violation of natural law” (Bonvillain 2006 pp. 253-254).
She however notes that anti-homosexual religious intolerance is not universal given that Hindu belief regards homosexuality as one of the possible expressions of human desire. “Hindu mystic stories portray both heterosexual and homosexual experience as natural and joyful.” (Bonvillain 2006 p. 254)
VI. Homophobia
In a detailed compilation of historical and ethnographic materials of Preindustrial Cultures, “strong disapproval of homosexuality was reported for 41% of 42 cultures; it was accepted or ignored by 21%, and 12% reported no such concept. Of 70 ethnographies, 59% reported homosexuality absent or rare in frequency and 41% reported it present or not uncommon.”
(Wikipedia 2011)
Sociologists Hess, Markson, and Stein (1988) in Sociology define homophobia as the “exaggerated fear of male homosexuality”. It is common in societies where women are the exclusive raisers of the young and where males develop deep insecurities over their sexual identity. Also, “although both lesbians and gaymen are subject to stigma and discrimination, the greater public concern seems to be directed at male homosexuals”.
In many cultures, homosexual people are frequently subject to prejudice and discrimination.
A 2011 Dutch study concluded that 49% of Holland’s youth and 58% of youth foreign to the country reject homosexuality. Similar to other minority groups they can also be subject to stereotyping. These attitudes tend to be due to forms of homophobia and heterosexism (negative attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favor of opposite-sex sexuality and relationships). Heterosexism can include the presumption that everyone is heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the norm and therefore superior.
Homophobia is a fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against homosexual people. It manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others. Similar is lesbophobia (specifically targeting lesbians) and biphobia (against bisexual people). When such attitudes manifest as crimes they are often called hate crimes and gay bashing.
One researcher reports that ‘several centuries in Europe, the laws against homosexual sex were severe in their penalties. Enforcement, however, was episodic. In some regions, decades would pass without any prosecutions. Yet the Dutch, in the 1730′s, mounted a harsh anti-sodomy campaign (alongside an anti-Gypsy pogrom), even using torture to obtain confessions. As many as one hundred men and boys were executed and denied burial”. (Greenberg, 1988, 313-4)
In the United States, the FBI reported that 15.6% of hate crimes reported to police in 2004 were based on perceived sexual orientation. Sixty-one percent of these attacks were against gay men.
VII. Conclusions
It is therefore clear from the ensuing discussions that as the world becomes smaller thanks to the mass media and information and communication technologies homosexuals and gay-pride movements will be pushing the drive for greater tolerance and acceptance to new frontiers. Human Rights activists will certainly push many governments to decriminalize homosexuality, but Cameroonian cultures and many African countries will also not relent in the fight against this form of “unnatural” practice and many others like abortion and female genital mutilation, all considered as threats to human existence. The Christian Church is also expected to come out with a stronger moral code so that its members are not wantonly derailed into a modern-day Sodom and Gomorrah. Whatever the case, the co-habitation between homosexual preferences and homophobia will be around for a long time.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allgeier, Albert Richard, and Elizabeth Rice Allgeier, 1995, Sexual Interactions. Toronto: D.C. Heath and Company.
Bonvillain, Nancy, 2006, Cultural Anthropology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Boswell, John, 1980, Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Ember, Carol R., and Melvin Ember, 1990, Anthropology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Giddens, Anthony, 1996, Introduction to Sociology. New York: W. W. Nortorn and Company.
Greenberg, David F., 1988, The Construction of Homosexuality. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Hess, Berth B., Elizabeth W. Markson, and Peter J. Stein, 1998, Sociology. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Kottak, Conrad Phillip, 1991, Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Papalia, Diane C. and Sally Wendkos Olds, 1989, Human Development. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Segalen, Martine, 1986, Historical Anthropology of the Family. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
The Boston Women’s Health Book Collective, 1976, Our Bodies Ourselves: A Book By and For Women. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Trinitarian Bible Society, 1985, The Holy Bible. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
www.stanford.edu. 2012
www.thepostonline.com. 2011
www.wikipedia.com. 2011
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About the Author:
T. Snowsel Ano-Ebie was born in Yaounde, Cameroon. His current interests are in the Social Sciences and Management. He was educated at Government Secondary School Buea, Government High School Mbengwi and The University of Buea. After training as a Broadcast Journalist at The Cameroon Radio and Television, CRTV Training Centre in Yaounde, Snowsel Ano-Ebie worked at the Commercial FM Station in Douala for more than ten years and served as a News Editor and Programmes Supervisor.
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